Socio-Demographic Correlates of Substance Use and Community Perspectives on Intervention Strategies in Southern Ijaw, Nigeria

Background: Substance abuse is a growing public health crisis in Southern Ijaw Local Government Area (LGA), Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Despite documented prevalence and patterns of use, the socio-demographic drivers of vulnerability and community perspectives on intervention remain poorly understood, limiting evidence-based policy formulation.

Objectives: This study examined socio-demographic correlates (age, gender, educational attainment, employment status) of substance use frequency in Southern Ijaw, and identified community-endorsed intervention strategies, including legal awareness, perceptions of government effectiveness, preferred measures, and attitudes toward public health campaigns.

Materials and Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional survey was conducted among 447 respondents aged 18-50 years, recruited from 15 communities across five wards using multi-stage sampling. Data were collected through structured, pre-validated questionnaires (Cronbach’s α = 0.82) and analysed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages) and inferential statistics (Pearson’s chi-square tests, Cramér’s V) via SPSS version 25.0. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

Results: All four socio-demographic variables demonstrated statistically significant associations with substance use frequency. Educational attainment exhibited the strongest association (p < 0.001), followed by age (p < 0.001), employment status (p < 0.001), and gender (p < 0.05). Substance use was concentrated among young adults aged 18-34 (75.39%), individuals with no formal or secondary education (69.58%), the unemployed (51.90%), and males (70.47%). Regarding interventions, 96.42% reported awareness of the legal status of drug use, yet only 30.87% believed the government was effectively addressing the problem. Stricter law enforcement was the most endorsed strategy (52.13%), followed by community-based initiatives (25.73%) and education/awareness programmes (17.23%). Public health campaigns received overwhelming support (93.96%).

Conclusion: Educational attainment and age are the strongest predictors of substance use frequency. Legal awareness alone does not deter use, and community confidence in government remains low. Effective intervention requires a multi-sectoral approach addressing youth employment, educational access, enforcement, rehabilitation, and culturally appropriate public health campaigns.

Substance abuse is a critical public health challenge in sub-Saharan Africa, with Nigeria bearing a disproportionate burden characterised by rising prevalence, inadequate treatment infrastructure, and significant individual and community consequences (WHO, 2020; UNODC, 2021). The Niger Delta region, shaped by environmental degradation from petroleum extraction, economic marginalisation, chronic unemployment, and limited social infrastructure, presents conditions that heighten vulnerability to substance use (Ebegbulem, 2018).

Southern Ijaw Local Government Area, located within Bayelsa State in the heart of the Niger Delta, comprises predominantly riverine and coastal communities facing compounded developmental challenges. Previous research within this population has documented that substance abuse is dominated by tramadol (43.85%) and cannabis (22.82%), with overwhelmingly habitual use patterns (69.35 percentage daily users), initiated during adolescence (mean age 17.92 years), and sourced predominantly through unregulated channels, including street dealers (40.04%) and patent medicine stores (36.91%). The health, social, and economic consequences have been documented as near-universal and severe.

Understanding which populations are most affected and what interventions communities endorse is critical for designing effective, context-appropriate responses. The socio-demographic determinants of substance use vulnerability, and community perceptions of governmental efforts and preferred intervention modalities, remain insufficiently characterised in rural Niger Delta settings. This represents a significant gap in evidence needed to guide targeted, acceptable, and feasible public health programmes.

This study had two objectives. The primary objective was to examine socio-demographic correlates (age, gender, educational attainment, employment status) of substance use frequency in Southern Ijaw. The secondary objective was to identify community-endorsed intervention strategies, including legal awareness, perceptions of government effectiveness, preferred measures, and attitudes toward public health campaigns, to inform evidence-based recommendations.

Study Area

The study was conducted in Southern Ijaw Local Government Area (LGA), Bayelsa State, Nigeria. It is the largest LGA in Bayelsa State, with a projected population of approximately 479,000. The LGA consists predominantly of riverine and coastal communities with limited road access, dependence on water transport, and restricted access to healthcare and educational services.

Research Design

A descriptive cross-sectional survey design was employed, selected for its capacity to capture the distribution and associations of variables within a defined population and to document community attitudes toward intervention strategies at a single point in time.

Sample Size and Sampling Technique

The minimum sample size was calculated using the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formula for finite populations: n = χ²NP(1-P) / [d²(N-1) + χ²P(1-P)], where N = estimated population, P = 0.50 (maximum variability), d = 0.05 (margin of error), and χ² = 3.841 (95% confidence level). Based on a projected population of approximately 479,000, this yielded a minimum of 384 participants. Accounting for a 15% non-response rate, 447 questionnaires were distributed, all of which were completed and returned. Multi-stage sampling was employed: five wards were randomly selected from ten, three communities per ward (15 total), and systematic random sampling was applied within each community. Approximately 30 respondents were recruited per community. Inclusion criteria required participants to be aged 18-50 years, resident in the study community, and willing to provide informed consent.

Instrument for Data Collection

A structured, self-administered questionnaire was developed covering: (a) socio-demographic characteristics (age, gender, educational attainment, employment status); (b) frequency of substance use (daily, weekly, monthly, occasionally, only tried once); (c) awareness of the legal status of drug use (very aware, somewhat aware, not aware); (d) perceptions of government efforts to combat drug abuse (yes/no/not sure); (e) preferred measures to reduce drug abuse (stricter law enforcement, community-based initiatives, education and awareness programmes, more rehabilitation centres, support for families); and (f) support for public health campaigns (yes/no/not sure). The questionnaire was pilot-tested and validated for content and face validity, with reliability established through a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.82.

Data Analysis

The dependent variable was frequency of substance use (daily, weekly, monthly, occasionally, tried once). Independent variables were four socio-demographic characteristics: age (18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55+ years), gender (male, female), educational attainment (no formal education, primary, secondary, undergraduate, postgraduate), and employment status (unemployed, student, part-time, full-time, self-employed). Descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) documented awareness, perceptions, and intervention preferences. Cross-tabulation and Pearson’s chi-square test (χ²) examined associations between socio-demographic variables and substance use frequency; the assumption of expected cell frequencies ≥ 5 was verified prior to analysis. Cramér’s V was calculated to assess effect sizes (0.10 ≈ small; 0.30 ≈ medium; 0.50+ ≈ large). Statistical significance was set at p less than 0.05. Missing data were minimal (less than 1%) and handled by listwise deletion. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 25.0.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participation was voluntary, and respondents were free to withdraw at any stage without consequence. Confidentiality was maintained throughout; no personal identifiers were collected, and all data were stored securely and used solely for research purposes.

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Of the 447 respondents, the majority were male (70.47%), aged 18-34 years (75.39%), and unemployed (51.90%). The most common educational levels were secondary education (46.31%) and no formal education (23.27%). Daily substance use was the predominant pattern of use (69.35%). Full socio-demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents (N = 447).

Source: Field work, 2025

Association between Socio-Demographic Factors and Frequency of Substance Use

All four socio-demographic variables were significantly associated with substance use frequency. Educational attainment demonstrated the strongest association, followed by age, employment status, and gender. Summary statistics are presented in Table 2, and the full cross-tabulation of each variable against frequency of use is presented in Table 3.

Table 2: Summary of Associations between Socio-Demographic Factors and Frequency of Substance Use (N = 447).

Source: Field work, 2025. Cramér's V interpretation: 0.10 ≈ Small; 0.30 ≈ Medium; 0.50+ ≈ Large.

Table 3: Cross-Tabulation of Socio-Demographic Variables and Frequency of Substance Use (N = 447).

Source: Field work, 2025. Categories with zero observations across all frequency cells excluded.

Age and Substance Use Frequency

Age was significantly associated with substance use frequency (χ² = 126.87, df = 8, p less than 0.001), with a large effect size (Cramér's V = 0.53). Substance use was heavily concentrated among those aged 18-34 years, who accounted for the highest rates of daily use. This concentration among young adults reflects heightened vulnerability during economically and socially active stages of life.

Gender and Substance Use Frequency

Gender was significantly associated with frequency of substance use (χ² = 12.24, df = 2, p less than 0.05), though with a small to moderate effect size (Cramér's V = 0.17). Males reported higher levels of both daily and weekly use compared to females. Overall, gender exerted a statistically significant but comparatively modest influence relative to other socio-demographic factors.

Educational Attainment and Substance Use Frequency

Educational attainment demonstrated the strongest association with substance use frequency (χ² = 164.52, df = 8, p less than 0.001), with a large effect size (Cramér's V = 0.61). A clear inverse gradient was observed, with daily use most prevalent among those with no formal or primary education, and least prevalent among postgraduates. This pattern suggests that education exerts a powerful protective effect against intensive substance use.

Employment Status and Substance Use Frequency

Employment status was significantly associated with substance use frequency (χ² = 54.36, df = 8, p less than 0.001), with a moderate effect size (Cramér’s V = 0.38). Daily use was most prevalent among unemployed respondents and students, while lower frequencies were observed among those in full-time and part-time employment. This pattern is consistent with the proposition that economic instability and limited occupational engagement are associated with increased substance use.

Awareness of the Legal Status of Drug Use

Table 4 presents respondents' awareness of the legal status of drug use. The overwhelming majority (96.42%) possessed at least some awareness, suggesting that ignorance of the law is not a primary driver of substance use; rather, use persists notwithstanding awareness of its legal prohibitions.

Table 4: Awareness of the Legal Status of Drug Use (N = 447).

Source: Field work, 2025.

Perceptions of Government Efforts and Preferred Intervention Strategies

Table 5 summarises respondents' perceptions of government efforts and their preferred intervention strategies. Less than one-third believed the government was actively addressing the problem, revealing a prevailing lack of confidence in governmental responses. Stricter law enforcement was the most endorsed intervention strategy, while public health campaigns received near-universal support (93.96%).

Table 5: Perceptions of Government Efforts and Attitudes toward Drug Abuse Control (N = 447).

Source: Field work, 2025.

This study examined the socio-demographic determinants of substance use frequency and community-endorsed intervention preferences in Southern Ijaw, a riverine Niger Delta community characterised by significant structural disadvantage. Collectively, the findings demonstrate that educational attainment and age are the strongest predictors of substance use intensity, with employment status and gender exerting comparatively lesser but nonetheless significant influences. The results further reveal a disconnect between legal awareness and behavioural change, alongside low community confidence in governmental responses, with stricter law enforcement and public health campaigns emerging as the most preferred intervention strategies.

Socio-Demographic Factors Associated with Substance Use

Educational Attainment

Educational attainment emerged as the single most powerful predictor of substance use frequency in this study, with an effect size exceeding those reported in urban Nigerian contexts. Omigbodun et al. (2016) reported a moderate association in Ibadan, suggesting that the protective effect of education may be particularly pronounced in settings like Southern Ijaw where educational opportunities are severely limited. This inverse relationship likely operates through multiple mechanisms: enhanced awareness of health consequences, greater access to preventive information, expanded social networks beyond substance-using peer groups, and improved economic prospects that reduce reliance on substance use as a coping strategy. The especially pronounced gradient observed here, relative to urban comparators, underscores how structural barriers to education in riverine communities compound individual vulnerability.

Age

The strong association between age and substance use frequency is consistent with developmental and epidemiological research documenting peak substance use during young adulthood. Oshodi et al. (2018) reported similar age-related patterns, with the highest intensity of use concentrated among individuals in their third decade of life, a finding mirrored in the present study. The concentration of intensive use among young adults in Southern Ijaw reflects both the developmental vulnerability of this age group to peer influence, as theorised by Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977), and the broader structural marginalisation characteristic of the region, where limited employment and educational opportunities create conditions consistent with Strain Theory (Merton, 1938). The convergence of these individual and structural risk factors during early adulthood may explain the particularly pronounced age effect observed in this setting compared to more resource-rich environments.

Employment Status

The association between unemployment and substance use frequency provides empirical support for Strain Theory, reinforcing the proposition that blocked access to legitimate economic advancement is associated with higher rates of substance use. The disparity in daily use rates between unemployed respondents and those in full-time employment is consistent with this theoretical framework. Notably, the unemployment rate in this study markedly exceeds rates reported in urban Nigerian contexts (Omigbodun et al., 2016), reflecting the more severe economic marginalisation of riverine Niger Delta communities and possibly associated with the higher overall intensity of use documented here relative to urban comparators. This contextual difference suggests that employment-focused interventions may yield proportionally greater benefits in settings like Southern Ijaw than in more economically diversified urban areas.

Gender

The small but statistically significant gender association is consistent with global patterns of substance use, with the UNODC (2021) reporting that males constitute the majority of individuals receiving treatment for substance use disorders worldwide. However, the comparatively modest effect size observed in this study is noteworthy: it suggests that once substance use is initiated, the intensity of use may be relatively similar across genders. This has important implications for intervention design. While programmes should be targeted toward the predominantly male user population, female substance users must not be overlooked, as the health and social consequences of use may be equally severe regardless of gender. Furthermore, the modest gender difference may reflect underreporting among female respondents given prevailing social stigma, a limitation that warrants consideration in the design of future research in this context.

Awareness, Attitudes, and Intervention Preferences

The striking contrast between near-universal legal awareness and the continued high prevalence of substance use is among the most policy-relevant findings of this study. It corroborates the position advanced by Abudu (2008) and Agha (2003) that knowledge of legal prohibitions is insufficient to deter drug use, and that effective prevention must address the social, economic, and psychological determinants of substance use behaviour. These finding challenges simplistic deterrence-based narratives and reinforces the need for multi-component interventions that go beyond legal prohibition.

The low confidence in governmental effectiveness is consistent with broader patterns of institutional distrust documented in Nigerian public health research and reflects the limited visibility of formal substance abuse interventions in underserved communities. This finding is particularly significant in the Southern Ijaw context, where geographic isolation and inadequate infrastructure further constrain the reach of governmental programmes. Rebuilding community trust will therefore be a prerequisite for the effective delivery of any state-led intervention.

The strong endorsement of stricter law enforcement reflects community demand for deterrence, yet the WHO (2020) cautions that punitive approaches alone are ineffective and may deepen the marginalisation of substance users. A more productive interpretation of this preference may be that community members are expressing a desire for visible, decisive action rather than a strict ideological commitment to punitive measures per se. The near-universal support for public health campaigns suggests that communities simultaneously recognise the importance of education and awareness, pointing toward an appetite for a combined deterrence and prevention approach. The relatively low endorsement of rehabilitation centres is unlikely to reflect genuine opposition; rather, it probably mirrors limited familiarity with treatment models, particularly given that prior research in this population documented a high help-seeking rate, indicating substantial unmet demand for services that communities have simply not been exposed to.

The preference for community-based initiatives is particularly significant in the Southern Ijaw context, where formal institutional presence is limited. Existing community structures, including Community Development Committees, religious institutions, and traditional leadership systems, represent the most accessible and trusted channels for programme delivery. Leveraging these structures to implement culturally appropriate interventions may be the most pragmatic and sustainable pathway to meaningful impact in this setting.

Limitations

Several limitations should be noted. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference regarding the direction of associations between socio-demographic factors and substance use. Second, self-report data are susceptible to both social desirability bias and recall bias, potentially leading to underreporting, particularly among female respondents given prevailing stigma. Third, the systematic sampling procedure may have excluded marginalised individuals - such as those without fixed residences or those actively using substances at the time of the survey - introducing selection bias. Fourth, the study’s scope was limited to four socio-demographic variables and did not capture additional potential moderators such as family structure, marital status, religiosity, or trauma history. Fifth, the findings are drawn from a single LGA in Bayelsa State and may not be generalisable to other Niger Delta communities or to urban Nigerian settings without further study. Finally, intervention preferences reflect stated rather than observed behaviour and may not fully predict actual engagement with specific programmes.

This study demonstrates that substance use in Southern Ijaw is strongly shaped by socio-demographic factors. Educational attainment and age are the most powerful predictors of use frequency, followed by employment status and gender. These findings indicate a profile of structural vulnerability concentrated among young, less educated, and economically marginalised individuals, underscoring that substance use in this setting is not merely a behavioural phenomenon but a consequence of deeper socio-economic disadvantage.

The persistence of substance use despite near-universal legal awareness highlights the limitations of deterrence-based approaches alone. Community confidence in governmental responses remains low, yet there is strong endorsement of a combined strategy encompassing law enforcement, community-based initiatives, and public health campaigns, indicating that communities are both aware of the problem and ready to engage with solutions.

Effective intervention in Southern Ijaw requires a coordinated, multi-sectoral response addressing both structural determinants and individual behaviour. Priority areas include expanding educational access, reducing youth unemployment, strengthening regulatory enforcement, and delivering culturally appropriate prevention and rehabilitation services through trusted community institutions.

Recommendations

Recommendation 1: Develop and implement targeted youth employment and vocational training programmes within Southern Ijaw, prioritising skills relevant to the local economy (fisheries management, boat building, agricultural processing) and incorporating entrepreneurship training and microfinance support, to provide economically meaningful alternatives to substance use.

Recommendation 2: Establish a dedicated drug regulatory enforcement unit within Southern Ijaw to monitor and prosecute patent medicine stores, street dealers, and pharmacies dispensing controlled substances without valid prescriptions, in coordination with the NDLEA and NAFDAC.

Recommendation 3: Design and implement a sustained, culturally sensitive public health education campaign addressing the consequences of substance abuse through local media, community assemblies, and religious and traditional institutions, focusing on psychosocial motivations rather than repeating legal information already widely known.

Recommendation 4: Establish accessible substance abuse treatment and rehabilitation facilities within Southern Ijaw, staffed by addiction medicine specialists, clinical psychologists, and trained counsellors, to address the documented unmet demand for treatment services.

Recommendation 5: Integrate mental health screening and psychosocial support into primary healthcare services, and implement adult literacy and continuing education programmes to address the strong link between low educational attainment and intensive substance use.

Recommendation 6: Mandate structured substance abuse prevention programmes in all secondary schools targeting the 15-19 age group, establish coordinated enforcement partnerships with the Nigeria Police Force, NDLEA, and patent medicine store operators, and mobilise community structures - including Community Development Committees, religious institutions, and traditional leadership - to implement locally driven prevention, family support, and awareness initiatives. A multi-sectoral Local Government task force should coordinate these efforts, monitor implementation, and establish surveillance systems for tracking prevalence trends.

Future Research Directions

Future studies should employ longitudinal designs to establish causal pathways between structural disadvantage and substance use. Comparative research across multiple LGAs in Bayelsa State and the wider Niger Delta would assess generalisability. Gender-focused qualitative work is needed to illuminate the experiences of female substance users, and intervention research evaluating multi-sectoral approaches is a priority.