Single Parenthood in Portugal - A Sociological Analysis of Structural and Cultural Transformations Yesterday and Today (1980 and 2015)

Objective: To analyze the phenomenon of single parenthood in Portugal, focusing on three central axes: its historical and conceptual evolution; its current statistical prevalence; and its social, cultural, and economic impacts, with special emphasis on the transformation of social stigma over time.

Design: An eclectic and diachronic approach, with a literature review and critical analysis of secondary sources, complemented by interviews conducted with two mothers from single-parent families established in distinct temporal and cultural contexts (1980 and 2015).

Methods: To support our study, we used the Scopus database, data from the 2021 Census, and conducted two open-ended interviews, using a qualitative approach, with two female-led single-parent families. Their testimonies enriched the theoretical basis, as they reflect two distinct perspectives and experiences in the context of single parenthood, shaped by the cultural, temporal, and social conditions in which they developed.

Results: Evolution of single-parent families: In the 1980s, single-parent families faced strong social stigma associated with cultural prejudices. In 2015, greater social acceptance was observed, but with persistent economic challenges (Wall & Lobo, 1999; Carreira, 2023).

Economic Impacts: Single-parent families remain economically vulnerable, dependent on multiple jobs and subsidies, especially in rural contexts.

Impacts on Children: The absence of a parent can affect children's emotional security, as well as hinder the development of early autonomy (Antunes, 2016).

Support Networks: Informal networks, such as family and friends, are often insufficient, leading to dependence on formal resources that often become inaccessible due to economic barriers.

The family, as a basic institution of society, has been the target of profound structural transformations in recent decades. The increase in its morphological diversity has placed the single-parent family at the center of sociological debate, given its growing prevalence in the Portuguese and international social landscape. Single parenthood is defined, in the context of the Sociology of the Family and in social policy studies, as "a mother or father living without a spouse and with dependent children (children or young single adults)." The National Institute of Statistics (INE) recognizes it as a "single-parent family unit" formed by a father living alone with one or more children, regardless of their age or marital status.

The objective of this article is to analyze the phenomenon of single parenthood in Portugal, focusing on three central axes: its historical and conceptual evolution; its current statistical prevalence; and the social, cultural, and economic impacts, with special emphasis on the transformation of social stigma over time.

Theoretical Framework and Brief Historical Evolution

The transition from the "hierarchical" or traditional family, marked by centralized paternal authority, to the "modern family" (Baliana, 2013) is the backdrop to the emergence of single parenthood as a sociologically recognized phenomenon. Women's entry into the labor market and access to contraceptive methods have increased individual autonomy and the likelihood of separations.

Until the 1970s, single parenthood was not recognized as a family structure and resulted from the death of a spouse, abandonment by the other parent, or in situations of single mothers or fathers (Benatti, 2021).

The expression "single-parent family" was introduced into Sociology in France in the 1970s, adapting the Anglo-Saxon concept of lone parent. In Portugal, its statistical and social relevance only consolidated in the late 1980s/90s, concomitantly with the development of social sciences and attention to social exclusion. This increased visibility spurred the creation of social policies and the elimination of derogatory terms (e.g., "abandoned woman" or "illegitimate children"), promoting greater social and legal acceptance.

This study uses a mixed methodology, combining:

Secondary Data Analysis: Use of the 2011 and 2021 INE censuses to determine the prevalence, geographical distribution and gender ratio in single-parent households in Portugal and in the Autonomous Regions of the Azores and Madeira.

Qualitative Data Analysis: Use of excerpts from two interviews conducted with single mothers, representing two distinct contexts (rural and urban): one family formed in 1980 (rural context) and another in 2015 (urban context). This diachronic approach allows us to contextualise changes in social perceptions and the challenges experienced.

Prevalence and Demographic Patterns

Data from INE (2021) show that there were 579,971 single-parent households in Portugal, an increase of 20.7% compared to 2011. The Autonomous Region of the Azores recorded an increase of 21.3%.

The most consistent pattern is the feminisation of single parenthood. According to INE, with regard to the proportion of single-parent families, it can be seen that the majority of single-parent families in Portugal are headed by mothers (85.6%), a significantly higher figure than single-parent families headed by fathers (14.4%). This trend has continued over the last three decades. This pattern is consistent with the reality observed in several countries, where mothers are often primarily responsible for raising children after a separation. However, between 2011 and 2021, there was an increase in the proportion of single-parent families with fathers and children, from 13.3% to 14.4%. Although this change seems small in percentage terms, in absolute numbers, the increase was considerable, resulting in 19,529 new families of fathers living with their children, compared to an increase of 79,999 families with mothers living with their children (Lima, 2023). The data suggest a slow redefinition of parental roles.

Underlying Causes of Single Parenthood: From Involuntariness to Choose (Women's Independence)

The underlying causes of single parenthood have evolved from an ‘involuntary phenomenon’ (e.g., widowhood) to a phenomenon that often stems from a ‘voluntary decision’ (Baliana, 2013).

Divorce and Separation: This is the dominant precursor to modern single parenthood. In 2023, the Autonomous Region of the Azores recorded the highest divorce rate in the country. According to INE data for 2023, there were 46,614 dissolutions of marriage due to the death of a spouse, representing a decrease of 5.3% compared to 2022 (49,236). Widowhood mainly affects women, due to male excess mortality, explaining the disparity in gross widowhood rates by sex. The crude widowhood rate for women was 6.0 per thousand inhabitants and for men 2.7 per thousand inhabitants. The Autonomous Region of the Azores follows the national trend, i.e., widowhood mainly affects women, however, the Region is below the national average.

Women's Choice and Independence: Financial autonomy and access to contraceptive methods and medically assisted reproduction (MAR) have given women greater ‘power of choice.’ Single parenthood, whether through single adoption (regulated in 2015) or the decision to have only one child, reflects the ‘trend towards individualisation and the separation of reproduction from marriage’. Based on statistical data on the number of divorces, the European Union average in 1991 was 27.5%, with Portugal below average at 14.8%, ranking 21st among European countries. These figures have increased considerably, with Portugal moving to 2nd place in the table in 2011 with 74.2%, and to the top in 2013, leading to the conclusion that single parenthood in Portugal in 2011 was predominantly caused by divorce (43.4%) and widowhood (7.7%) (Marinho, 2014). However, ten years later, the situation changed again, and according to INE, in 2023, 17,430 divorces were decreed for couples whose family residence was in national territory, i.e., 1,034 fewer than in 2022 (18,464), corresponding to a decrease of 5.6%, which shows that since 2015, Portugal has seen a decrease in the number of divorces, with the exception of some regions of the country, notably the Autonomous Region of the Azores (2.3‰), with a rate above the national average (Lima, 2023). 

The Decline of Social Stigma (Diachronic Analysis)

The analysis of the two interviews illustrates the profound cultural change in the perception of single parenthood:

Although society tends to accept single parenthood as an increasingly common occurrence, the expression ‘single mothers’ still reinforces and reproduces prejudice, affecting the self-esteem and social integration of these mothers and their children (Carreira, 2023). The expression ‘single fathers’ is not used and does not have the same connotation as ‘single mother’.

The expression ‘single mother’ has always been more visible and socially stigmatised. Women who raised children without a partner were judged or stigmatised, which made the term common to name and discuss this condition. The expression is associated with a woman's marital status. Today, the term tends to be replaced by solo woman and refers not to marital status, but to any woman who raises her children without the support of the father, regardless of her marital status.

Economic Impact and Vulnerability

Financial vulnerability is a persistent feature of single-parent families. The shift from two to only one source of income imposes greater ‘financial vulnerability, hindering access to essential resources such as education, health and housing’.

Reports Indicate:

Need to work shifts and do extra work.

“I had to work shifts to support my family. In my spare time, I did other odd jobs: sewing hems and delivering food” (Maria, 1980, rural parish).

Re-learning how to manage money, with a limited budget for basic items (food, clothing, footwear) and leisure (cinema, outings).

“Where before there were two sources of income, now there is only one. It's complicated. You have to re-learn how to manage money and priorities. There were activities I couldn't do with my daughter because they involved costs, such as going to the cinema. Often, I didn't even go on trips to other parts of the island because I had to save on fuel. I couldn't buy some basic items, such as food, clothing, and footwear, because I had a limited budget (...). My salary had to cover the rent, the car instalment and all the usual expenses that a home and a growing daughter entail. The child support provided by the father was, and still is, 100 euros. It wasn't easy..." (Fátima, 2015, city parish.)

Analysis of the impact of economic factors on single-parent families reveals the profound financial vulnerability faced by many parents, especially mothers, who bear sole responsibility for the support and care of their children. The scarcity of resources leads to a reconfiguration of priorities, with reduced spending in essential areas such as leisure and education, and dependence on precarious jobs or night shifts to ensure subsistence.

Impact on Children's Growth and Development

Single parenthood can affect children's growth in several ways, as the absence of one parent can trigger emotional, social, and financial challenges. Children may experience feelings of insecurity or abandonment, which can impact their emotional and psychological development. In addition, the overload of responsibilities of the single parent can reduce the time and attention devoted to care and education, affecting school performance and socialisation.

“The presence of both parents in the family has an impact on a child's sense of security and belonging. In this sense, I think that children feel more vulnerable and insecure when one parent is absent, which can affect their personality traits. I believe that some of the insecurities my daughter has today may stem from her father's absence.  (Fátima, 2015, city parish.)

When we encounter single-parent families resulting from a process of separation or divorce, this situation, according to Antunes (2016), triggers difficulties of adaptation to the new way of life for all, or part, of the family members.

“I remember telling her [daughter] that she would now have two homes, but she cried and said she only wanted one.” (Fátima, 2015, urban parish.)

Referring to several studies, the aforementioned author notes that children react differently to conflict, to new routines, and to the relationship with the paternal figure, and they experience difficulty in understanding their place within the family relationship, often expressing the desire for the family to be reunited. She adds that, when dealing with their emotions, they tend to display some negative reactions, such as sleep disturbances and aggressiveness.

Delfieu (2005), cited by Antunes (2016), mentions that the absence of contact with one of the parents may cause difficulties in adapting to the new situation, with long-term negative impacts on children’s development. He adds that it is not divorce itself that directly causes these problems, but rather the family discord present during the separation. Thus, for Simões (2011), cited by the same author, it is essential for parents to maintain an alliance in the upbringing of their children, which should be consistent and harmonious.

In cases of family reconstruction, Antunes (2016) notes that although it entails challenges that may affect children’s interactions and development, more recent studies indicate that the long-term presence of a stepfather or stepmother in children’s lives ensures advantages in their development, particularly for boys. For one of our interviewees, family reconstruction constitutes a positive experience both for herself and for her son.

“My partner was practically a father to him, and that was what made me rebuild a family.” (Maria, 1980, rural parish.)

Another aspect arising from single parenthood and its impact on children is the inherent need for them to become prematurely autonomous due to the absence of the other parent.

“Sometimes she stays on her own, a necessity that ended up becoming an asset in acquiring autonomy and responsibility for her daily and school activities.” (Fátima, 2015, urban parish.)

Carreira (2023), referring to several studies, mentions some concern regarding this imposed autonomy. For those with little support, children take care of one another on a daily basis, especially in delicate moments such as illness. The author adds that a study conducted by Correia (2010) also reveals that, at times, older siblings-especially girls-end up dropping out of school to take care of their younger siblings and the household. In light of this, Almeida (2014), cited by the same author, argues that these children end up assuming the role of the absent parent. She further adds that a study carried out in Mozambique by Agy (2020) reveals that in this country, when the children of single mothers reach adulthood, they become responsible for supporting their mother.

The aforementioned author emphasises that the current identities of descendants of single-parent families are shaped, in part, by their past, particularly by their childhood. She adds that this stage of life is crucial for the construction of identities and permanently marks each person’s life trajectory.

The identities of descendants of single-parent families are indeed deeply influenced by their childhood, a fundamental period in the formation of personality and values. Growing up in a single-parent environment may generate both challenges and strengths that shape the future of these individuals. The absence of one parent may affect perceptions of security and self-esteem and, in some cases, create a sense of lack or emotional deprivation. However, this experience may also contribute to the development of resilience, independence and empathy-characteristics that influence life trajectories and future relationships.

Impact on Future Relationships

After a divorce, it is common for couples to form new relationships, whether or not they have children, and whether through marriage or not. Alves and Arpini (2017), referring to Brun (2010) and Costa & Dias (2012), state that this reconstruction begins with the choice of a partner, who may also have experienced marriage or not. They add that, as a result, various circumstances will need to be adjusted due to the wide network of relationships that will arise from this new union.

There are family reconstruction experiences that prove positive, while others do not.

The case of the interviewee Maria was positive; she found happiness and even had another child as a result of this new marriage.

“I rebuilt a family ten years later with the person who supported me at that time; he was the person who gave me shelter. And I had a second child with this person.” (Maria, 1980, rural parish.)

For Fátima, however, the experience was different. She rebuilt a family, but clashes of ideals, divergences in the education of the children, work overload and personality conflicts eventually led to the end of the relationship and conditioned her future perspectives regarding a new relationship.

“(…) it is difficult to find someone my age who is available, who has some mental stability. Certainly, they will have children too, small ones (…)” (Fátima, 2015, urban parish.)

“I rebuilt a family in 2017 with another partner, also divorced, with two children. It was not easy either. We bring heavy past baggage, sacrificed lives, customs and habits that diverge, and small personal achievements acquired along the way that we do not wish to give up. Love, loyalty, freedom, respect, responsibility and peace become supreme and inviolable values. Bringing someone into our world and maintaining that balance is very difficult, unless both have the same focus, the same ideals, the same principles. That did not happen with me. Cultural clashes, personality differences and the way children are educated are further threats to the success of a reconstructed relationship. I remember seeing my spouse educate his children based on ideals completely different from those I shared with my daughter, and this was the cause of many disputes. Moreover, with the increase in the household, responsibilities and tasks also increased (…). I do not intend to rebuild a family. My daughter and I have been alone since 2020 and, although I sometimes feel lonely, I can manage and I prefer to have peace.” (Fátima, 2015, urban parish.)

The concept of social stigma refers to Goffman (1963), who states that “an individual who might have been easily accepted in everyday social interaction possesses a trait that can draw attention to itself and distance those he encounters, destroying the possibility of attention to his other attributes.” When looking at single-parent families in general, the trait that distances people is the absence of one of the parents. It is inevitable that, with regard to new romantic relationships, single mothers or fathers face certain prejudices (Carreira, 2023). It should be noted that, for the interviewee Fátima, although she herself is a single mother, finding a partner in the same situation represents an obstacle.

Fátima’s view is common to that shared by society in general, which predominantly stigmatises female single parenthood, which continues to be the object of particular exclusion, as it results not only from worrying social and economic problems, but also because these women are victims of unresolved exclusions related to women’s status and non-traditional family structures (Gonçalves, 2013, cited by Carreira, 2023).

Carreira (2023) mentions that men seem to have greater ease in establishing a new relationship within a short period of time. Women, on the other hand, are seen as less attractive for new romantic relationships because they are already mothers. She adds that it is not the fact of being a single-parent family that places individuals in a condition of social exclusion, but rather society itself that erects barriers instead of striving to include them.

Family reconstruction after divorce can trigger significant challenges, such as divergences in values and in the education of children, which often hinder the integration of new parental figures. While some experiences, such as Maria’s, may result in new opportunities and happiness, others, such as Fátima’s, demonstrate how clashes of ideals and responsibilities can compromise the stability of reconstructed relationships. Society still carries stigmas regarding single parenthood, especially in the case of women, who face greater social exclusion and difficulties in establishing new romantic relationships, often due to their status as mothers.

Single-parent families in Portugal reflect the structural transformations of society, shifting from an involuntary imposition to a manifestation of individual autonomy and female agency. The data demonstrate their growing normalisation, driven by rising divorce rates and new forms of procreation and adoption. Social stigma, although declining, is still present, particularly in contexts of female single parenthood and in more conservative areas.

The interviews conducted brought real and striking stories, helping to highlight the data presented. The single-parent family of Mrs. Maria in 1980 showed how difficult it was to deal with a society still full of prejudice and almost devoid of support for those who chose to raise a child alone. It was a daily struggle for acceptance in society, often marked by isolation and exclusion. Regarding Mrs. Fátima’s family in 2010, she experienced a different, more inclusive and open context, yet still faced difficulties, especially economic ones, and the equally challenging demands of managing everything alone.

Despite the progress achieved through the creation of benefits and support policies aimed at single-parent families, much remains to be done. Many single-parent families, particularly those headed by women, continue to bear a disproportionate burden, while men who raise children alone still face a degree of social invisibility. It is extremely urgent that public policies advance to offer more equal and comprehensive support, recognising their specific needs.

What these stories have shown us is precisely that single-parent families are not merely an alternative family model; they represent courage, resilience and adaptability. It is up to all of us, as a society, to create conditions that allow these families to live with dignity, stability and happiness.

From a sociological perspective, structural changes should not be interpreted as a “degradation of the family”, but rather as the revelation of “new family logics built according to individual strategies and social contexts” (Baliana, 2013). It is imperative that public policies continue to evolve in order to respond to persistent economic vulnerability, ensuring the emotional and social support necessary for these households, so as to promote their full integration and well-being.