Determination of Patterns and Multidimensional Impacts of Substance Abuse in Southern Ijaw Local Government Area of Bayelsa State, Nigeria

Background: Substance abuse is a critical public health concern in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, yet systematic data on its prevalence, patterns, and consequences remain scarce in underserved riverine communities such as Southern Ijaw Local Government Area (LGA), Bayelsa State.

Objectives: This study aimed to identify the most commonly abused substances and characterise patterns of use, and to assess the physical, mental, behavioural, social, and financial impacts of substance abuse on individuals and the community.

Materials and Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional survey was conducted among 447 respondents aged 18–50 years, recruited from 15 communities across five wards using multi-stage sampling. Data were collected through structured, pre-validated questionnaires (Cronbach’s α = 0.82) and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics (chi-square tests, Cramér’s V) via SPSS version 25.0, with significance set at p < 0.05.

Results: Tramadol (43.85%) was the most commonly abused substance, followed by cannabis (22.82%). The primary acquisition sources were street dealers (40.04%) and patent medicine stores (36.91%). The mean age of initiation was 17.92 years (SD = 4.39), with daily use reported by 69.35% of respondents. Recreation (30.87%) and peer pressure (26.17%) were the leading motivations. Health consequences were near-universal: 98.66% reported physical health problems and 97.76% reported mental health consequences. Social and financial impacts were substantial, including relationship loss (76.51%) and diversion of essential funds (84.34%). Significant dose-response associations were identified between use frequency and physical health (V = 0.383), mental health (V = 0.381), and community crime perceptions (V = 0.256).

Conclusion: Substance abuse in Southern Ijaw is characterised by habitual tramadol and cannabis use sourced through unregulated channels, with near-universal multidimensional consequences that intensify with increased frequency. Urgent interventions addressing regulatory enforcement, adolescent prevention, and rehabilitation infrastructure are warranted.

Substance abuse, defined as the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, constitutes a complex socio-medical phenomenon shaped by the interplay of biological, psychological, social, economic, and environmental determinants (WHO, 2020). In Nigeria, escalating substance abuse has been accompanied by deteriorating physical and mental health outcomes, increased criminality and violence, fractured family structures, and substantial economic costs to individuals and the healthcare system.

The burden of substance abuse is not uniformly distributed across Nigeria. The Niger Delta region exemplifies heightened susceptibility, characterised by decades of environmental degradation from petroleum extraction, persistent economic marginalisation, chronic youth unemployment, and inadequate social infrastructure (Ebegbulem, 2018). Southern Ijaw LGA, located within Bayelsa State, encapsulates these challenges in particularly acute form. The LGA comprises predominantly riverine and coastal communities accessible primarily by water transportation, with limited access to quality education and healthcare, widespread youth unemployment, and geographic isolation that constrains access to conventional social support systems.

These structural conditions create a context in which vulnerable populations, particularly adolescents and young adults, may turn to psychoactive substances as maladaptive coping mechanisms for economic frustration, psychological distress, and social alienation. Reports from healthcare workers, community leaders, and law enforcement personnel suggest an alarming escalation in substance abuse in Southern Ijaw, particularly involving tramadol, cannabis, and benzodiazepines, obtained through informal distribution networks operating largely beyond pharmaceutical regulatory oversight (UNODC, 2019). The consequences extend beyond individual health to encompass broader social, economic, and security dimensions.

Despite the apparent severity of this problem, systematic empirical research examining substance abuse within Southern Ijaw remains absent from the scientific literature. National-level surveys and urban-based studies have documented substance abuse patterns in Nigeria but typically lack the geographic specificity necessary to inform localised intervention strategies. This study was therefore designed to address this knowledge gap by identifying the most commonly abused substances and characterising patterns of use, and by assessing the multidimensional impacts of substance abuse on individual and community well-being.

Research Design

A descriptive cross-sectional survey design was employed for its capacity to capture the prevalence, distribution, and associations of variables within a defined population at a single point in time.

Study Area

The study was conducted in Southern Ijaw LGA, the largest LGA in Bayelsa State with a projected population of approximately 479,000. The area comprises predominantly riverine and coastal communities characterised by limited road infrastructure, dependence on water transportation, artisanal fishing economies, and restricted access to formal healthcare and educational services.

Sample Size and Sampling Technique

The sample size was determined using the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formula for finite populations, yielding a minimum of 384 respondents. Accounting for a 15% non-response rate, 447 questionnaires were distributed and completed. Multi-stage sampling was employed: five wards were selected from ten, three communities per ward (15 total), and systematic random sampling was applied within each community for participants aged 18-50 years.

Instrument for Data Collection

A structured, self-administered questionnaire was developed covering socio-demographic characteristics, types and patterns of substance use, motivations, health consequences, help-seeking behaviour, social and relationship impacts, financial impacts, and perceived community crime effects. The instrument was pilot-tested and validated, yielding a Cronbach’s α of 0.82.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations) were used to characterise patterns and impacts. Pearson’s chi-square tests examined associations between substance use frequency and impact severity, with Cramér’s V used to assess effect sizes. Statistical significance was set at p less than 0.05. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 25.0.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from the relevant institutional authority. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Participation was voluntary, confidential, and anonymous, and no personal identifiers were collected.

Socio-Demographic Characteristics

Of the 447 respondents, the majority were male (315; 70.47%), aged 18-34 years (337; 75.39%), with secondary education (207; 46.31%) or no formal education (104; 23.27%). Over half were unemployed (232; 51.90%). The full socio-demographic profile is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025.

Types of Substances Consumed

Tramadol was the most commonly consumed substance (43.85%), followed by cannabis (22.82%), synthetic cannabinoids (9.17%), benzodiazepines (6.26%), alcohol (4.47%), methamphetamine (4.03%), codeine (4.03%), cocaine (2.68%), and skunk (2.68%). No respondents reported using inhalants or heroin. Together, tramadol and cannabis constituted 66.67% of all reported use, reflecting a broader regional shift toward pharmaceutical misuse.

Sources of Drug Acquisition

Street dealers constituted the largest source (179; 40.04%), followed by patent medicine stores (165; 36.91%). Together, these unregulated channels accounted for over three-quarters of all acquisition. Only 48 respondents (10.74%) obtained drugs from pharmacies without prescriptions, 27 (6.04%) with valid prescriptions, and 28 (6.26%) from friends or family. No respondents used online platforms.

Age at Initiation of Drug Use

The mean age of first drug use was 17.92 years (SD = 4.39). Over half (52.13%) initiated between ages 15 and 19, and approximately 66.91% initiated before age 20. A notable 6.71% reported first use before age 10 (Table 2).

Table 2: Age at First Drug Use Initiation (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025. Mean = 17.92 years; SD = 4.39.

Frequency of Drug Use

Daily users constituted the majority (310; 69.35%), followed by weekly users (122; 27.29%) and monthly users (15; 3.36%). No respondents reported occasional or single-trial use, suggesting entrenched, habitual consumption (Table 3).

Table 3: Frequency of Drug Use Among Respondents (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025.

Motivations for Substance Use

Recreation was the leading motivation (30.87%), followed by peer pressure (26.17%), performance enhancement (21.03%), stress management (19.24%), and curiosity (2.68%). No respondent cited medical reasons, confirming overwhelmingly non-medical use.

Physical Health Consequences

An overwhelming 98.66% reported physical health problems. Among those affected (n = 441), respiratory problems were most prevalent (58.96%), followed by heart-related issues (18.82%), liver damage (14.29%), and skin reactions (7.94%) (Table 4).

Table 4: Physical Health Problems Associated with Drug Use (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025.

Mental Health Consequences

Nearly all respondents (97.76%) reported mental health challenges. Anxiety predominated (37.99%), followed by depression (29.98%), paranoia (20.14%), and cognitive impairment (14.19%) (Table 5).

Table 5: Mental Health Conditions Associated with Drug Use (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025.

Behavioural Effects

A total of 407 respondents (93.14%) reported negative behavioural changes. Increased aggression was predominant (78.13%), followed by social withdrawal (20.15%) and risky behaviours (11.55%) (Table 6).

Table 6: Behavioural Effects of Drug Use (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025.

Help-Seeking Behaviour

The majority (350; 78.30%) had sought help. Counselling was the most accessed intervention (76.00%), followed by medical treatment (28.86%), rehabilitation centres (20.57%), and support groups (2.29%) (Table 7).

Table 7: Help-Seeking Behaviour Among Respondents (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025.

Social, Financial, and Community Impacts

Over three-quarters (78.75%) reported negative effects on relationships, and 76.51% reported losing a significant relationship. Financially, 84.34% diverted essential funds to drug purchases, while 94.63% perceived drug use as contributing to increased community crime (Table 8).

Table 8: Social, Financial, and Community Impacts (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025.

Association between Frequency of Use and Reported Impacts

Significant dose-response associations were identified between substance use frequency and most outcome domains (Table 9). The strongest effects were observed for physical health (χ² = 131.05, p less than 0.001, V = 0.383) and mental health (χ² = 130.06, p less than 0.001, V = 0.381), followed by family and relationship disruption (V = 0.280) and perceived community crime (V = 0.256). General behavioural change was the only non-significant outcome (χ² = 1.59, p = 0.450).

Table 9: Association between Frequency of Use and Reported Impacts (N = 447).

Source: Fieldwork, 2025. Cramér’s V: 0.10 ≈ Small; 0.30 ≈ Medium; 0.50+ ≈ Large.

Patterns and Prevalence of Substance Use

The dominance of tramadol (43.85%) is consistent with UNODC (2019) data identifying it as the most widely abused opioid in West Africa, and with the 35-48% prevalence reported by Adeoye et al. (2020) among Nigerian youth. Cannabis prevalence (22.82%) aligns with national estimates of 20-25% (UNODC, 2021). The combined dominance of these two substances (66.67%) reflects a broader epidemiological shift toward pharmaceutical opioid misuse in the region.

The mean initiation age of 17.92 years is comparable to findings from Lagos (18.3 years; Oshodi et al., 2018) and Oyo State (16-18 years; Ajala, 2009), while the concentration at ages 15-19 (52.13%) is consistent with Omigbodun et al. (2016). However, the daily use prevalence (69.35%) substantially exceeds urban rates of approximately 42% (Adeoye et al., 2020), suggesting more intensive consumption patterns that may reflect prolonged untreated abuse in underserved settings. The reliance on unregulated sources, street dealers (40.04%) and patent medicine stores (36.91%), underscores the failure of pharmaceutical regulatory mechanisms in this area (Oshodi et al., 2018; UNODC, 2019).

Motivations for Substance Use

The predominance of recreational motivations (30.87%) and peer pressure (26.17%) is consistent with Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) and with comparable findings in the Nigerian literature (Adeoye et al., 2020; Ajala, 2009). The role of stress management (19.24%) supports the self-medication hypothesis (Alwan et al., 2017), particularly significant given the near-universal mental health consequences observed. Performance enhancement (21.03%) reflects broader patterns observed in contexts of economic precarity (WHO, 2020). The complete absence of medical motivations confirms that substance use in this population is overwhelmingly non-therapeutic.

Health, Mental Health, and Behavioural Consequences

The near-universal physical health consequences (98.66%) substantially exceed rates reported in Lagos (72%; Oshodi et al., 2018) and other Nigerian studies (65%; Adeoye et al., 2020). This disparity likely reflects the intensive use patterns (69.35 percentage daily) and prolonged untreated abuse in a setting with limited healthcare access. The predominance of respiratory conditions (58.96%) is pharmacologically consistent with cannabis inhalation and tramadol’s respiratory depressant effects (Goodman & Gilman, 1996).

Mental health consequences (97.76%) far exceed the WHO (2022) global estimate of 50-60%, possibly reflecting synergistic effects of substance toxicity, social marginalisation, and the near-absence of mental health services. The high help-seeking rate (78.30%), contrasting with 23% in Ibadan (Omigbodun et al., 2016), may reflect consequence severity or selection bias. The predominance of counselling (76.00%) suggests recognition of psychosocial intervention needs.

Social, Financial, and Community Impacts

Relationship impacts (78.75% negative; 76.51% loss) align with findings from Adeoye et al. (2020; 68%) and Oshodi et al. (2018; 71%). Financial consequences (84.34% diverting essential funds) are consistent with the economic literature on substance dependence (Gossop & Grant, 1990). The perceived crime increase (94.63%) is consistent with criminological research, though this relationship is complex and mediated by pharmacological effects, economic imperatives, and drug criminalisation policies (Goldstein, 1994).

Dose-Response Relationships

A critical finding is the significant dose-response relationship between use frequency and consequence severity. The strongest effects were for physical and mental health (V = 0.383 and 0.381, respectively), followed by family and relationship disruption (V = 0.280) and perceived community crime (V = 0.256). This gradient underscores the importance of early intervention to reduce use frequency before consequences become entrenched.

Substance abuse in Southern Ijaw LGA is dominated by tramadol and cannabis (66.67% combined), characterised by habitual consumption (96.64 percentage daily or weekly), adolescent initiation (mean 17.92 years), and acquisition through unregulated channels (76.95% from street dealers and patent medicine stores). The consequences are near-universal and multidimensional, spanning physical health (98.66%), mental health (97.76%), behavioural conduct (93.14%), social relationships (78.75%), financial stability (84.34%), and community safety (94.63%). These impacts intensify significantly with increased frequency of use, with the strongest dose-response relationships observed for physical and mental health outcomes.

Recommendations

The Bayelsa State Government should establish a dedicated drug regulatory enforcement unit within Southern Ijaw for systematic monitoring of patent medicine stores, street dealers, and pharmacies, in coordination with the NDLEA and NAFDAC. Substance abuse treatment and rehabilitation facilities should be established within the LGA, staffed by addiction specialists and clinical psychologists. A sustained, culturally sensitive public health education campaign should address tramadol misuse and substance abuse consequences through local media, community assemblies, and religious and traditional institutions. Mental health screening and psychosocial support services should be integrated into primary healthcare. Structured substance abuse prevention programmes should be implemented in all secondary schools, targeting the 15-19 age group identified as the critical initiation window. Community leaders should also establish family support networks to address the documented relationship disruption.

Limitations

Several limitations should be acknowledged. The reliance on self-administered questionnaires introduces the possibility of social desirability bias. The cross-sectional design precludes causal inference. The near-universal reporting of health consequences may reflect sample severity or selection bias. Additionally, systematic sampling may have excluded relevant individuals within the study communities.